East Of Eden By John Steinbeck - 2495 Words

John Steinbeck’s novel, â€Å"East of Eden†, discloses the answer of right and wrong, good versus evil and overcoming sin with a simple Hebrew word â€Å"Timshel†, meaning thou mayest, allowing us the freedom to make our individual decisions or choose our path in life; it’s actually God’s perfect gift to everyone. In the beginning, God grants us free will so that we have the ability to love and accept him or not. However, had God not chosen to grant us free will, we would not be human as we know it today, for the original sin would never have occurred. Likewise, people’s inability to experience emotions of any kind, whatsoever, would turn us into mere mundane robots, forced to listen and answer to an authoritarian God. Lee plays an instrumental part in â€Å"East of Eden†, by not only bringing into focus â€Å"Timshel† and its meaning to the Trask family but through his strength and character as a whole, for without Lee â€Å"E ast of Eden† and the concept of â€Å"Timshel† is non-existent. Lee’s character in â€Å"East of Eden† commences when Adam and Cathy move to California and Adam purchases land or his â€Å"Garden in Eden† as Adam refers to it. Lee described in the beginning as a Chinaman sporting a queue and only speaking in pidgin. However, the more one discovers about Lee in the book; the more one finds this is not the case at all. Lee is Chinese-American, who is extremely knowledgeable, well-spoken, well-read, insightful and thought provoking. He was born in a railroad camp, where his mother disguisedShow MoreRelatedEast of Eden by John Steinbeck624 Words   |  2 Pagesworld: one that is able to change and others that refuses to change. In the novel, East of Eden by John Steinbeck, Steinbeck mainly focuses on female character that can be illustrated as either a person who is able to fit in to changes as a wife and a mother, or who simply just deviates from home and/or family life. Although Steinbeck characterizes Liza as an example of a completely devoted wife and a mother, Steinbeck evokes the idea that a domestic woman is not really true of Liza: but is also independentRead MoreEast Of Eden By John Steinbeck2066 Words   |  9 Pagesauthor always has a motive for writing a story and a point they are trying to get across. John Steinbeck has written some very influential novels in his life. These books are read in high schools, as well as in people s free time to try and expand their minds and change their perspectives on life. Steinbeck has a very descriptive writing style that helps make his books classic novels worth reading. Steinbeck is a writer that does a great job of not just blatantly telling the reader what he wantsRead MoreFree Will in East of Eden by John Steinbeck1002 Words   |  5 Pagessignificant role in East of Eden. It shows that anyone can desire to surmount vile in their hearts and create morality within them self. In the novel, Steinbeck portrays the significance of timshel through the introduction of free will, the internal conflict of Caleb, and the blessing of Adam. Steinbeck portrays the significance of timshel through the introduction of free will, which plays an important role in the theme of Cain and Abel and provides the interpretation of Steinbeck. Timshel is broughtRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden1087 Words   |  5 Pagesto leave an inspirational impression on his sons, John Steinbeck portrays experiences he acquired from his childhood in the novel East of Eden through the characters’ conflicts and actions to encourage them to write their own story not dictated by their roots. Steinbeck admits in Journal of a Novel: The East of Eden Letters that he â€Å"hopes his two young sons will find meaning in life when they grow and acquire the experiences to understand.† Steinbeck s failure to feel accepted, accept his father sRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden1742 Words   |  7 PagesI. SUBJECT John Steinbeck’s East of Eden centers on the Trask and Hamilton families in the year 1902 in the Salinas Valley, California. After growing up in Connecticut alongside his brother Charles under the harsh parenting and rejection of his father, Adam Trask seeks to find happiness and peace. He vows to be a better man than his father and feels the rolling valleys of California calling him. One night, Cathy Ames crawls onto the doorstep of Adam and Charles’ home after her boyfriend attemptedRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden893 Words   |  4 PagesA central question raised by John Steinbeck’s East of Eden is whether it is possible to triumph over evil, answered by the discussion of free will and inherited sin. The idea of â€Å"timshel† is canvassed through the struggles of Caleb â€Å"Cal† Trask. The concept of inherited sin is illustrated through the actions of Cyrus Trask, Charles Trask, and Cathy/Kate Trask. Although Cal is seemingly â€Å"born† into evil, he struggles against what he sees as his inherited evil from his mother and is eventually ableRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden1342 Words   |  6 Pagesto fall back. Might it not be that in the dark pools of some men the evil grows strong enough to wriggle over the fence and swim free? Would not such a man be our monster, and are we related to him in our hidden water?† (Steinbeck 133). The novel, East of Eden, by John Steinbeck, interprets that every human being since Cain and Abel has struggled with the choice between good and evil. He dramatizes the conflict between wickedness and purity within the Trask family and the main characters of the novelRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden1279 Words   |  6 PagesHistory, is the story among which all literary works are linked to, and this statement is true more than any other in John Steinbeck’s East of Eden. Whether one believes that all stories in the Bible have actually happened or not, at least some concepts of them did. How would a writer arrive at the ideas of two brothers and jealousy of love, without having seen it or felt it before? Yet again, how would these ideas survive for so long, unless many people felt them as well and connected to them. TheRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden1072 Words   |  5 Pages once the illusion is destroyed, it also destroys him. Similarly, John Steinbeck explores the double-edged sword of deception, wielded by both children and adults, in his novel East of Eden. Just as the masks that society wears, multiple characters throughout the story at first originally incapable of committing a sin as great as deceit due to their innocent introductions. Despite this initial virtuosity, Steinbeck’s East of Eden evinces humanity’s contrasting and inherent dependence upon selfishRead MoreJohn Steinbeck s East Of Eden1763 Words   |  8 PagesEast of Eden, written by John Steinbeck, is a profound, complicated retelling of the biblical story of Cain and Abel, focused around the overall struggle between good and evil . John Steinbeck wrote this for his own sons, John and Tom, to show them not only the history of their family in the Hamiltons, but also the concept of sibling rivalry emerging from the competition over paternal love and acceptance (Shillinglaw). This was first evident in Adam and Charles Trask, and then in Adam’s sons, Ar on

The Spread of Western Imperialism - 991 Words

In 1853, Western imperialism was at its height. It was spreading to several countries. The British colonized India, the Dutch colonized Indonesia, the United States colonized the Philippines, and the French colonized Vietnam. In 1929, the crash of the stock market brought a worldwide depression, known as the Great Depression. The depression caused instability in many countries. International commerce declined and tax revenues, profits, and personal income decreased. The Great Depression especially impacted countries that were in need of raw materials. Between the time of 1853 to 1941, Japan’s culture and political structure changed anticipating westernization because they wanted to be seen as equals to the Western countries. Japan also became more militaristic so that they would not be seen as a victim of imperialism. Although Japan experienced some changes, Japan continued the ideology of kokutai as a method for imperial advancement. Japan’s cultural and political structure changed from being a weak isolated nation to a modern imperialist country. Before Japan westernized, it was under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate. This was an agricultural economy with a population of 13 billion. Japan did not associate with any other country because they believed foreign influence was a destabilizing factor. This resulted in overcrowded farms and scarce minerals. In 1853, Commodore Perry came to Japan with big black ships. The technological advancements of the ships shocked theShow MoreRelatedThe Western Culture : Cultural Imperialism1169 Words   |  5 PagesGlobalization has played a significant role in helping the spread of ideas and cultures across countries and continents on a new scale never seen before. The spread of culture began a long time ago with people sailing around the world in search of adventure and resources. People were able to interact and share cultural beliefs and practices with dominant cultu res imposing themselves on less dominating cultures. Countries that had more economic power than others, and those cultures that viewed themselvesRead MoreWhat Is Your Opinion of The Spread of English in the World Today?1137 Words   |  5 Pagescan destroy their own language. Although some studies suggest that English has naturally spread and do not harm anyone, there is considerable evidence that shows spread of English was motivated by some western countries and created a linguistic imperialism that has affected the culture, identity and language of the non-English speaking countries. There is some evidence that suggest, English has spread naturally in the world and as a result it is now a ‘lingua franca’ the common languageRead MoreEssay on The End of the Cold War1634 Words   |  7 Pagesprimal literary sense – is purely a euphemism for western cultural and linguistic imperialism. Indeed, globalisation, as the apparent integration of global cultures, exists along with its imperialist antithesis: the prevalence of fragmentation in many areas of the same world (Owolabi, 2001). Simply put, globalisation is not a neutral, apolitical effort to integrate, nor merely the product of many centuries of intermingling, but a vehicle for coercive Western homogenisation at the expense of under-developedRead MoreImperialism in the 19th century1746 Words   |  7 Pagesgreat deal of Imperialism in the 19th century, led by mostly westerners from Europe. Imperialism is the act in which one nation extends its rule over another. Imperialism had a su bstantial effect on the 19th century throughout the entire world by bringing upon changes to many different countries, for better and for worse, especially to Africa. Prior to the nineteenth century, westerners did interfere with many of the affairs of nations outside of their boarders, so signs of imperialism are shown manyRead MoreEssay on Imperialism: From Europe to The West1514 Words   |  7 PagesEarly in the twentieth century, imperialism was brought up by European powers of the time; Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia. These nations were after raw materials in Asia, Africa, and South America and when they realize that they could not retrieve it, they began to colonize smaller counties that contain the many resources they need and used it for their benefit. Western values played a big part in European imperialism. European civilization experienced a period of extraordinary rapidRead MoreImperialism and India Essay1067 Words   |  5 Pageslife by one country is called imperialism. (Esler, page. 632) European imperialism began in the 1800s. â€Å"European nations won empires in the Americas after1492, established colonies in In dia and Southeast Asia, and gained toeholds on the coast of Africa and China. Despite these gains, between 1500 and 1800, Europe had little influence on the lives of the peoples of China, India or Africa.† (Esler, page.632) Then the Europeans industrialized and believe western cultures were superior to all otherRead MoreSocial And Economic Effects Of British Imperialism1544 Words   |  7 Pagesexpansion by the United States, European powers, and Japan. This took place during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and marked a large pursuit of oversea territories. New imperialism spread nations influence either directly or indirectly, and also spread the political, cultural, and economic values. Imperialism of free trade British imperial economic ideals were jarringly different from the previously prevalent mercantilist doctrines of earlier centuries. The mercantile doctrines declaredRead MoreHow Did The U.s. Expand Westward And What Was Its Impact On Native Americans?1114 Words   |  5 PagesHow did the U.S. expand westward and what was its impact on Native Americans? Answer: The United States began expanding westward during the 1800s. During the early 1800s, America turned its attention towards the exploration and settlement of its Western territory. The amount of land had been greatly increased by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which almost doubled the size of the nation. Later on, the size of the United States increased yet again with the Mexican Cession and the Gadsden PurchaseRead MoreWestern Imperialism and Modern East Asia Essay example1188 Words   |  5 PagesWestern imperialism in East Asia caused many tribulations for China, Japan, and Korea but also helped them to become contemporary nations. The East Asian countries were tremendously affected by unequal treaties, extraterritoriality, and above all, technology. Great Britain encroached upon China their greed for open trade with the Chinese empire resulting in the deterioration of the Chinese culture, which led to the emergence of a modernized civilization. Japan was co-subjugated by Russia and theRead MoreImperialism as a Source of Many Conflicts throughout History658 Words   |  3 PagesImperialism a source of most if not all conflicts throughout history. No matter the century or time period, the start of all wars, battles, and conflicts all draw their roots back to imperialism. Imperialism have had great impacts on nations and brought many changes to societies and their cultures. It has impacted on people lives and how they live. It has affected our societies to this day and shaped or helped create foundations for our countries and cultures that we have today. Imperialism began

Abnormal Psychology free essay sample

Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder. The science of abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors: Adaptive and Maladaptive behaviors. Clinical psychology is the applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand and treat psychological conditions in clinical practice. The theoretical field known as ‘abnormal psychology’ may form a backdrop to such work, but clinical psychologists in the current field are unlikely to use the term abnormal in reference to their practice. Disability or dysfunction. (Is there a loss of normal functioning? ) People who suffer from psychological disorders may be unable to get along with others, hold a job, eat properly, or clean themselves. 3. Personal distress. (Is the person unhappy? ) The personal distress criterion focuses on the individual’s own judgment of his or her level of functioning. Feelings of worthlessness and of having lost the joy of living are common. Wild weeping may occur as a general reaction to frustration or anger. Such crying spells do not seem to be directly correlated with a specific function. Example: It’s hard to describe the state I was in several months ago. The depression was total – it was as if everything that happened to me passed through this filter which colored all experiences. Nothing was exciting to me. I felt I was no good, completely worthless, and deserving or nothing. The people who tried to cheer me up were just living in a different world. †¢Cognitive symptoms: Besides general feelings of futility, emptiness, and hopelessness, certain thoughts (e. g. egative view of the self, of the outside world and of the future [Beck, 1974]) and ideas are clearly related to depressive reactions. Disinterest, decreased energy and loss of motivation make it difficult for the depressed person to cope with everyday situations. Work responsibilities become monumental tasks and the person avoids them. Self-accusations of incompetence and general self-denigration are common. Other symptoms include difficulty in concentrating and in making decisions. †¢Behavioral symptoms: Shows social withdrawal and lowered work productivity. Other symptoms include sloppy or dirty clothing, unkempt hair, and lack of concern of personal hygiene. Slowing down of all body movements, expressive gestures and spontaneous responses is called psychomotor retardation. †¢Physiological symptoms: Loss of appetite and weight Constipation -Sleep Disturbance, e. g: insomnia, nightmares hypersomnia -Disruption of the normal menstrual cycle -Aversion to sexual activity Symptoms of Mania †¢Affective Symptoms: The person’s mood is elevated, expansive, or irritable. Show boundless, energy, enthusiasm and self-assertion. If frustrated, they may become profane and quite belligerent. †¢Cognitive symptoms: flightiness, pressured thoughts, lack of focus and attention, and poor judgment. Although much of what they say is understandable to others, the accelerated and disjointed nature of their speech makes it difficult to follow their train of thought. They seem incapable of controlling their attention, as though they are constantly distracted by new and more exciting thoughts and ideas. †¢Behavioral Symptoms: Uninhibited, engaging impulsively in sexual activity or abusive discourse. DSM-IV-TR recognizes 2 levels of manic intensity:- Hypomania: affected people seem to be ‘high’ in mood and overactive in behavior. Their judgment is usually poor, although delusions are rare. When they interact with others, people with hypomania dominate the conversation and are often grandiose (meant to produce an imposing effect) . Mania: more disruptive behaviors, including pronounced over activity, grandiosity and irritability. Their speech may be incoherent and they do not tolerate criticisms or restraints imposed by others. Hallucinations and delusions may appear. †¢Physiological Symptoms: decreased need for sleep, accompanied by high levels of arousal. The energy and excitement these patients show may cause them to lose weight or to go without sleep for long periods. UNIPOLAR DISORDERS Depression without a history of mania In almost all countries, women are at least twice as likely as men to experience episodes of severe unipolar depression. Approximately half of people with unipolar depression recover within six weeks and 90% recover within a year, some without treatment (Kessler, 2002; Kendler et al. , 1997). However, most of them have at least one other episode of depression later on their lives (Boland Keller, 2002). People become depressed when the daylight hours are short and recover when the daylight hours are long. A person’s mood changes cannot be the result of psychosocial events, such as regularly being unemployed during the winter. Rather, the mood changes must seem to come on without reason or cause. *Dsythmia Differs from major depression in terms of both severity and duration. Dsythmia represents a chronic mild depressive condition that has been present for many years. In order to fulfill DSM-IV-TR criteria for this disorder, the person must, over a period of at least 2 years, exhibit a epressed mood for most of the day on more days than not. These symptoms must not be absent for more than 2 months at a time during the 2-year period. If at any time during the initial 2 years the person met criteria for a major depressive episode, the diagnosis would be major depression rather than dsythmia. As in the case of major depression disorder, the presence of a manic episode would rule o ut a diagnosis of dsythmia. When dysthymic disorder leads to major depressive disorder, the sequence is called double depression (Boland Keller, 2002). The distinction between major depressive disorder and dsythmia is somewhat artificial because both of sets of symptoms are frequently seen in the same person. In such cases, rather than thinking of them as separate disorders, it is more appropriate to consider them as two aspects of the same disorder, which waxes and wanes over time. Some experts have argued that chronic depression is a single, broadly conceived disorder that can be expressed in many different combinations of symptoms over time (McCullough et al. , 2003). BIPOLAR DISORDER A disorder marked by alternating or intermixed periods of mania and depression People with a bipolar disorder experience both the lows of depression and the highs of mania. Many describe their life as an emotional roller coaster. They shift back and forth between extreme moods. The essential feature of bipolar disorders is the occurrence of one or more manic or hypomanic episodes; the term bipolar is used because the disorders are usually accompanie d by one or more depressive episodes. Bipolar disorders include subcategories which describe the nature of the disorder; Bipolar I and Bipolar II. Bipolar I (Formally known as manic depression) where normal mood is interrupted by manic and major depressive episodes, or, occasionally, by what are referred to as mixed episodes in which manic and major depressive symptoms are both present. †¢Single manic episode- Presence of only one manic episode and no past major depressive episodes. †¢hypomanic- in a hypomanic episode, with at least one previous manic episode. †¢Manic- in a manic episode, with at least one previous major depressive, hypomanic, or manic episode. †¢mixed- in a mixed episode(i. e. or everyday during at least a one-week period, the criteria for a major depressive episode-except for duration-and a manic episode have both been met) †¢Depressed- in a major depressive episode, with at least one previous manic episode. †¢Unspecified- meets criteria for manic, hypomanic, or major depressive episode except for duration (i. e. the episode does not last long enough to meet the criteria for each ): at least one previous manic episode. Bipolar II This is similar to bipolar I except that hypomanic episodes occur instead of manic episodes. The distinction between the two disorders was clarified in the DSM-IV. †¢Recurrent major depressive episodes with hypomania- one or more major depressive episodes and presence of at least one hypomanic episode: never has a manic episode. Cyclothymic Disorder Manic and depressed moods that are chronic and relatively continual in nature. Depressive (Unipolar)Bipolar Disorders Low incidence of manic disturbances -the late twenties -low tendency to attempt suicide, anxiety -lithium has little effect- higher incidence of manic disturbances -Age of onset is earlier (the early twenties) Display psychomotor retardation a greater tendency to attempt suicide -respond to lithium Causes †¢Genetic Factors Family, twin and adoption studies suggest the involvement of genetic factors. The prevalence of depression in the random population (10% for men and 20% for women) is the baseline against which the concordance rates can be compared. -Family pedigree studies select people with unipola r depression as probands(the person who is the focus of a study), examine their relatives, and see whether depression also afflicts other members of the family. If a predisposition to unipolar depression is inherited, a proband’s relatives should have a higher rate of depression than the population at large. -One of twin studies looked at nearly 200 pairs of twins. When a monozygotic twin had unipolar depression, there was a 46% chance that the other twin would have the same disorder. In contract, when a dizygotic twin had unipolar depression, the other twin had only 20% chance of developing the disorder. (McGuffin et al. ,1996). -One study looked at the families of adopted persons who had been hospitalized for this disorder in Denmark. The biological parents of these adoptees turned out to have a higher incidence of severe depression than did the biological parents of a control group of nondepressed adoptees. (Wender et al. ,1986) Evaluation 1. Nature vs. Nuture It is difficult to separate out the influence of nature and nurture. Whilst the twin studies provide strong evidence for the role of genetic factors and the adoption studies point to the role of nature over nurture this is not conclusive. 2. Diathesis-stress model Genes alone do not determine who will develop depression – they only create vulnerability. Thus, they are not a direct cause as other factors must trigger the disorder. Evidence for this is that the concordance rates are not 100%, which shows that depression is due to an interaction of genetic and other factors. †¢Biochemical Factors The monoamine hypothesis suggests that depression is due to abnormal levels of neurotransmitters in the monoamine group. This was expanded upon the permissive anime theory (Kety,1975), which proposes that the level of noradrenaline and dopamine are controlled by serotonin. When serotonin is low the levels of noradrenaline fluctuate wildly; low levels are associated with depression and high levels with mania. The low levels of serotonin may be genetically inherited. The three neurotransmitters – serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline – are part of the monoamine group and play a role in normal arousal and mood. By-product compounds of the enzymes that act upon noradrenaline and serotonin were lower than normal in the urine of depressives. (Teuting, Rosen Hirschfeld, 1981) Antidepressant drugs such as the monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) increase the levels of noradrenaline and serotonin and alleviate the symptoms of drepssion, which supports the influence of the biochemical on mood. -Post-mortem studies of patients who committed suicide show reduced levels of serotonin and an increased number of serotonin receptor sites. Evaluation 1. Cause, effect or correlate It is difficult to establish whether the low levels of neurotransmitters c ause depression, are an effect of having the disorder or are merely associated. Causation cannot be inferred as associations only have been identified. 2. Treatment aetiology fallacy The success of antidepressant drugs as a treatment does not necessarily mean the biochemical are the cause of the depression in the first place. MacLeod (1998) described this as the treatment aetiology fallacy and used headaches as an example. Aspirin works well as a treatment but this doesn’t mean the headache was due to an absence of aspirin. 3. Reductionist and deterministic Biological explanations are reductionist as they focus on only one factor and t present our understanding of biochemistry is oversimplified. This means other biological factors, such as hormones and psychological factors are ignored. The biological explanations are also deterministic because they ignore the individual’s ability to control their own behavior. †¢Psychodynamic Factors According to Freud, we are victims of our feelings, as repression and displacement are defense mechanisms in r esponse to actual loss ( death of a loved one) and symbolic loss (loss of status) that enable us to cope with the emotional turmoil, but can result in depression. Individuals with excessive dependence on others for self-esteem as a consequence of oral fixation are particularly vulnerable and unable to cope with loss. Anger at the loss is displaced onto the self, which affects self-esteem and causes the individual to re-experience loss that occurred in childhood. Freud believed that superego (or conscience) is dominat in the depressed person and this explains the excessive guilt experienced by many depressives. In contrast, the manic phase occurs when the individual’s ego, or rational mind, asserts itself and s/he feels in control. However, early loss does not consistently predict depression. Evaluation 1. Although the findings indicate that losses and inadequate parenting sometimes relate to depression, they do not establish that such factors are typically responsible for the disorder. In the studies of young children and young monkeys, for example, only some of the subjects who were separated from their mothers showed depressive reactions. 2. Many findings are inconsistent. Though some studies find evidence of a relationship between childhood loss and later depression, others do not. (Parker,1992; Owen, Lancee Freeman, 1986) 3. Certain features of the psychodynamic explanation are nearly impossible to test. Because symbolic loss, fixation at the oral stage, and introjection are said to operate at an unconscious level, it is difficult for researchers to determine if and when they are occurring. Similarly, other psychodynamic ideas can be measured only by retrospective self-reports of people who are or have been depressed. †¢Behavioral Factors depression is due to maladaptive learning. The principles of operant conditioning have been applied to explain depression using reinforcement and punishment. Many behaviorists view depression as a product of inadequate or insufficient reinforcers in a person’s life, leading to a reduced frequency of behavior that previously was positively reinforced. oThe number of events and activities that are potentially reinforcing to the person. This number depends very much on individual differences and varies with the biological traits and experiential history of the person. For example, age, gender, or physical attributes may determine the availability of reinforcers. Handsome people are more likely to receive positive attention than are nondescript people. Young people are likely to have more social interaction than retirees are. A task-oriented person who values intellectual pursuits may not respond to interpersonal or affiliative forms of reinforcement as readily as other people would. To such a person, a compliment such as ‘I like you’ may be less effective than ‘I see you as an extremely competent person. ’ oThe availability of reinforcements in the environment, Harsh environments, such as regimented institutions or remote isolated places, reduce reinforcements. oThe instrumental behavior of the individual. People in depression lack social behaviors that can elicit positive reinforcements. They feel more uncomfortable in social situations and the elicit depression in others. They tend to talk about themselves (more so than other people do) without being asked to do so. By creating conditions that further their depression or drive others away, these individuals thereby lose any social reinforcement that others could provide. Evaluation 1. Reductionist The behavioral explanations are greatly oversimplified as they focus on only one factor, the environment. This focus on the external means internal factors that may bee more influential, such as biological and cognitive are ignored. 2. Environmentally deterministic The behavioral explanations are deterministic as they suggest that behavior is controlled by the environment, which ignores the individual’s ability to control their own behavior. 3. Ignore nature The behavioral explanations overemphasize nurture and ignore nature. 4. Population validity Learned helplessness are an explanation of the development of depression may be more relevant to certain types of people, e. . those who lack social skills and so have limited emotional support. †¢Cognitive Factors 1. Arbitrary inference- The person with depression tends to draw conclusions that are not supported by evidence. For example, a woman may conclude that ‘people dislike me’ just because no one speaks to her on the bus or in the class. A man who invites a woman to dinner and finds the restaurant closed that ev ening may see this as evidence of his own unworthiness. In both cases, the person draws erroneous conclusions from the available evidence. People with depression are apparently unwilling or unable to see other, more probable, explanations. 2. Selected Abstraction- The individual takes a minor incident or detail out of context and focuses on it, and these incidents tend to be trivia. A person corrected for a minor aspect of his work may take the correction sign of incompetence or inadequacy – even when the supervisor’s overall feedback is highly positive. 3. Overgeneralization- The individual tends to draw a sweeping conclusion about his ability, performance or worth from one single experience or incident. The comments of a student seen by one of the authors at a university psychology clinic provide another illustration of overgeneralization: when he missed breakfast at the dormitory because his alarm clock didn’t ring, the student concluded, ‘I don’t deserve my own body because I don’t take care of it. ’ Later, when he showed up late for class through no fault of his own, he thought, ‘ what a miserable excuse for a student I am. ’ When a former classmate passed by and smiled, he thought, ‘I must look awful today or she won’t be laughing at me. ’ 4. Magnification and minimization- The individual tends to exaggerate limitations and difficulties and play down accomplishments, achievements and capabilities. Asked to evaluate personal strengths and weaknesses, the person lists many shortcomings or unsuccessful efforts but finds it almost impossible to name any achievements. Evaluation 1. Causes or effect? The evidence is not convincing that negative cognitions precede the disorder but nor has this been disproved. Therefore, conclusions are limited. It may be that the relationship is curvilinear, . i. e. negative thinking predisposes depression and depression increases negative thinking, 2. Descriptive not explanatory. The research may describe the nature of depressives’ thoughts rather than explain the development of depression if negative cognition is a consequence, not a cause, of depression. If it is a cause then it is not clear what causes the negative cognitions in the first place. 3. Success of cognitive treatments. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been found to be as effective as antidepressants (Elkin at al. , 1985), which supports the role of cognitive factors in depression. But the cure does not necessarily indicate the cause, as the treatment aetiology fallacy states. 4. Lack of reliability. The prospective research is inconsistent and so we cannot be sure if negative cognitions cause or are a consequence of depression. Treatments for Depressive Disorders 1. Medication 4 kinds of antidepressant medication: tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) Heterocyclic antidepressants (HCAs) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) Each medication is designed to heighten the level of a target neurotransmitter at the neuronal synapse. This heightening can be accomplished by: boosting the neurotransmitter’s synthesis blocking its degradation preventing its reuptake from the synapse, or Mimicking its binding to postsynaptic receptors 2. Electroconvulsive Therapy Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is generally reserved for patients with severe unipolar depression who have not responded to antidepressant medications. It consists of applying a moderate electrical voltage to the person’s brain for up to half a se cond. The patient’s response to the voltage is a convulsion (seizure) lasting thirty to forty seconds, followed by a five- to thirty- minute coma. Most patients with serious depression show at least a temporary improvement after about 4 ECT treatments (R. Campbell,1981). The ECT mechanism is not fully understood; it may operate on neurotransmitters at the synapses, as do antidepressants. One major advantage of ECT is that the response to treatment is relatively fast (Gangadhar, Kapur Kalyanasundaram, 1982). However, common side effects include headaches, confusion and memory loss. Many clinicians believe that ECT is the most rapid and effective treatment for major depressive episodes. ECT is controversial and critics have urged that it be banned as form of treatment. 3. Psychotherapy and Behavioral Treatments Because the use of antidepressant medication or ECT involves a number of disadvantages, clinicians have sought other approaches to either supplement or replace medical treatment of depression. A variety of psychological forms of treatment have been used, such as psychoanalysis, behavior therapy, group psychotherapy and family therapies – all with some success. -Interpersonal Therapy is a short term, psychodynamic-eclectic type of treatment for depression. It targets the client’s interpersonal relationships and uses strategies found in psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral and other forms of therapy. Clients gain insight into conflicts in social relationships and strive to change these relationships. For example, by improving communications with others, by identifying role conflicts and by increasing social skills, clients are able to find relationships more satisfying and pleasant. Although interpersonal psychodynamic resembles psychoanalysis and psychodynamic approaches in acknowledging the role of early life experiences and traumas, it is oriented primarily toward present, not past, relationships. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy combines cognitive and behavioral strategies. The cognitive component involves teaching the patient the following:- a. to identify negative, self-critical thoughts (cognitions that occurs automatically) b. to note the connection between negative thoughts and the resulting depression. c. to carefully examine each negative thought and decide whether it can be supported d. to try to replace distorted negative thoughts with realistic interpretations of each situation At the outset of the cognitive therapy, the client is usually asked to begin monitoring his or her negative thoughts and list them on a chart. It is important for the client to include all thought and emotions associated with each distressing event that takes place each day. The second part of the cognitive-behavioral approach is behavior therapy, which is usually indicated in cases of severe depression in which the patient is virtually inactive. One primary assumption underlying this approach is that the patient is not doing enough pleasant, rewarding activities. During depression, people tend to belittle themselves and to withdraw from others; they can interpret their self-imposed social isolation as sign of being unpopular and inadequate. To address this problem, the therapist asks the patient to keep a daily activity schedule, listing life events hour by hour and rating the ‘pleasantness’ of each event. Once the client becomes more active, the therapist may ask the person to attend a social skills training program. Improvements in social skills generally help clients become more socially involved and can make that involvement rewarding. Treatments for Bipolar Disorders Although the forms of psychotherapy and behavior therapy used for depressive disorders are also used for bipolar disorders (e. g. MAOIs and SSRIs), drugs (especially lithium) are typically given to bipolar clients. Lithium is used as a mood-stabilizing drug to prevent or reduce future episodes of bipolar disorder. As noted, the manic phase of bipolar disorder may be caused by too much neurotransmitter (primarily norepinephrine) at brain synapses or by neurotransmitter dysfunction. Lithium decreases the total level of neurotransmitters in the synaptic areas by increasing the reuptake of norepinephrine into the nerve cells. Accurate measurements of lithium blood levels are easily obtained and dosages can be adjusted accordingly. Summary Severe depression is a major component of the mood disorders; it involves affective, cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms, such as sadness, pessimism, low energy and sleep disturbances.

Philosophy 101 Study Guide Essay Example

Philosophy 101 Study Guide Essay * Socrates: Philosopher who believed in an absolute right or wrong; asked students pointed questions to make them use their reason, later became Socratic Method. Charged with introducing strange gods and corrupting the young, he committed suicide. * Rhetoric: Saying things in a convincing matter * Skepticism: The idea that nothing can ever be known for certain. * Sophists: A wise and informed person, critical of traditional mythology, rejected fruitless philosophical speculations. A member of a school of ancient Greek professional philosophers who were expert in and taught the skills of rhetoric, argument, and debate, but were criticized for specious reasoning. * Socratic Irony: Feign Ignorance, or pretend to be dumber than really are to expose the weaknesses of peoples thinking * â€Å"One thing only I know, and that is that I know nothing† * â€Å"He knows what good is will do good† * Plato (428-347 B. C. Athens, Greece): Student of Socrates. Established The Academy. Wrote Dialogues. He was a Dualist. * Two parts to a human: Body ; Soul Plato regarded the body and soul as separate entities * A person may crave or have an appetite for something, yet resist the craving with willpower. A correctly operating soul requires the highest part, reason, to control the lowest part, appetite, with assistance from the will. * Plato believed that though the body dies and disintegrates, the soul continues to live forever. After the death of the body, the soul migrates to what Plato called the realm of the pure forms. There, it exists without a body, contemplating the forms. We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy 101 Study Guide specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy 101 Study Guide specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy 101 Study Guide specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer After a time, the soul is reincarnated in another body and returns to the world. But the reincarnated soul retains a dim recollection of the realm of forms and yearns for it * Theory of ideas/forms: the reality behind the material world, which contains the eternal and immutable â€Å"patterns† behind the various phenomena, we come across in nature. * Plato believed that everything tangible in nature flows. There are no substances that do not dissolve, and so everything is made of a timeless mold or form that is eternal and immutable. * Eternal: Lasting or existing orever; without end or beginning. * Immutable: Unable to be changed * Form (Ideas): A form is an abstract property or quality. Take any property of an object; separate it from that object and consider it by itself, and you are contemplating a form. For example, if you separate the roundness of a basketball from its color, its weight, etc. and consider just roundness by itself, you are thinking of the from of roundnes s. * The forms are transcendent. This means that they do not exist in space and time. A material object, a basketball, exists at a particular place at a particular time. A form, roundness, does not exist at any place or time. * Pure the forms only exemplify one property. Material objects are impure; they combine a number of properties such as blackness, circularity, and hardness into one object. * Archetypes The forms are archetypes; that is, they are perfect examples of the property that they exemplify. The forms are the perfect models upon which all material objects are based. The form of redness, for example, is red, and all red objects are simply imperfect * Ultimately Real The forms are the ultimately real entities, not material objects. All material objects are copies or images of some collection of forms; their reality comes only from the forms. * Causes The forms are the causes of all things. * They provide the explanation of why any thing is the way it is * They are the source or origin of the being of all things * Systematically Interconnected The forms comprise a system leading down from the form of the Good moving from more general to more particular, from more objective to more subjective. This systematic structure is reflected in the structure of the dialectic process by which we come to knowledge of the forms. * Realm of Forms (World of Ideas): The world that we perceive through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Humans have access to the realm of forms through the mind, through reason, given Platos theory of the subdivisions of the human soul. This gives them access to an unchanging world, invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world. By detaching ourselves from the material world and our bodies and developing our ability to concern ourselves with the forms, we find a value which is not open to change or disintegration. * Realm of the Illusory (World of the Senses): The world we perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. It seems that all the objects we perceive with the senses are simply images or experiences in our mind. They are only subjective points of views on the real objects. For example, the world appears radically differently to a color blind person than it does to us. The objects that we perceive as colored, then, must not be the real objects, but just our experience of these objects that is determined by my particular subjective point of view and perceptual apparatus. * True Knowledge * He believed that as result of the constant change within the material world we could never really have true knowledge. * Eros: Greek god of love; son of Aphrodite; often shown blindfolded * Rationalism: the belief that human reason is the primary source of our knowledge of the world * Three parts of the Soul Reason (Intellect) * In the Head * Provide Wisdom * Where our individual/ unique talents lie * If reason functions excellently (arete) then we are wise to that extent * If we exercise wisdom to the extent then that part of the soul is excellent * Responsible for love of learning, spirited, animated * Passion [Appetite/Desire] * From Greek word â€Å"Pathe† meaning the irrational movements of the soul * In gut * Provides temperance If passion functions excellently then we are temperate * If we exercise temperance to the extent then that part of the soul is excellent * Responsible for Desire * Thymos * Means Spirit/Will * In Heart * Provides Courage * Can help reason master passion * If we exercise courage to the extent then that part of the soul is excellent * Responsible for anger * Views on Women: Plato believed that women had a right, or you might even call it a role to play in society. Their role was to be a significant part of society, different from men, but still play a part. Plato believed that women were necessary for society to run smoothly. * Women were not equals of men * Women lacked strength * Women are naturally maternal * In Plato’s time it was unheard of to view women as more than a piece of property. * Dualist: a sharp division between the reality of thought and extended reality. * Aristotle (384-322 B. C; Macedonia, Athens): Pupil of Platos. Believed Platos world of ideas did not exist but that the eternal idea was really a concept- the idea of a horse that we have after seeing many of them. Learn know through the senses. 20 questions. Causes * What type of material it is made of? * Wood * What type of thing it is? * Table * What caused it to come into being? * How it was built; the task needed to be done to create the table * Purpose or Final Cause (Telos): The purpose, end, aim, or goal of something. The final cause is the cause why a thing exists. * Meant to be a dinner table or desk * Views on Women: Viewed them as â€Å"unfinished men†. * Golden Mean: One cannot be too much of one thing or too less, need to be balanced * Empiricism: Derive all knowledge from what the senses tell us. There are no innate ideas and cannot prove the existence of God, eternity or substance * Hellenism: The period of time and the Greek-dominated culture that prevailed in the three Hellenistic Kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt. The diffusion of Greek Culture throughout the Mediterranean world after the conquest of Alexander the Great. * The Cynics: True happiness doesnt come from external advantages, like power/good health. Once you have true happiness, it cant be lost. Their own/others health shouldnt disturb them. * The Stoics * Stoicism was founded by a man named Zeno, who lived from 335-263 BC. He used to lecture not in a classroom but outside, on the porch of a public building * The word for porch in Greek is STOA, and so people called his students Stoics * People should try to reach inner peacefulness * Moderate in everything * Be happy with what they had. This would lead to a happy life * The best indication of an individuals philosophy was not what a person said but how h e behaved * Destructive emotions resulted from errors in judgment * Sage: person of moral and intellectual perfection * Would not suffer from such emotions The Epicureans: They believed pleasure is the greatest good, but to attain pleasure was to live modestly, gain knowledge of the workings of the world, and limit to ones desires. * Neo-Platonism: Belief of two poles on Earth, one end is the dive light called the One (God). Other end is absolute darkness, no existence, the absence of light. * Syncretism: The combining of different beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. * Mysticism: One with God, merging with him. I am God. or I am You. * Two Cultures The Indo-Europeans: Related languages of Europe, India, and Iran, which are believed to have descended from a common tongue spoken roughly in the third millennium B. C. by an agricultural peoples originating in SE Europe * The Semites: A member of any of the peoples who speak or spoke a Semitic language , including in particular the Jews and Arabs- mostly Middle Easterners, they saw history as an on going line, world will end on judgment day * The Middle Ages: Period of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century * St. Augustine: Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province. Influence of the Arabs: The Arabic-Latin translation movements in the Middle Ages, which paralleled that from Greek into Latin, led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world. * St. Thomas Aquinas: Tried to make Aristotle’s philosophy compatible with Christianity. Believed Christendom and philosophy were the same thing. Used bible as a source of reason. Created a synthesis between faith and knowledge. Said there are natural theological truths—truths that can be reached through both Christian faith and innate reason. Tried to prove gods existence of Aristotle’s philosophy. Everything has a formal cause. God has revealed himself to mankind through both reason and the bible. * The Renaissance: period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the modern world; a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th centuries * Reformation: religious movement of 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches * Three Major Discoveries: The compass, Firearms, and printing press. The Baroque: Historic period from about 1600 until 1750 when the baroque style of art, architecture, and music flourished in Europe * Carpe Diem: Seize the day. * Memento Mori: Remember your mortality- meaning Remember, you will die. * Idealism: the philosophical theory that ideas are the only reality. * Materialism: the belief of material things (atoms and the void). All real things derive from concrete subst ances. Determinism: Laplace (french mathematician) said that everything that happens is predetermined- contradicting the belief of free will and suggests that the outcome of everything is written in the stars * Descartes: French philosopher and mathematician; developed dualistic theory of mind and matter. Father of modern Philosophy. * His main concern was what we can know – certain knowledge * â€Å"Je pense donc je suis†: I think, therefore I am * â€Å"Cogito ergo sum†: I think, therefore I am said by Rene Descartes. * Two Forms of Reality: Thought Extention Agnostic: Unsure/Undecided/Needs more information. Unable to say categorically whether or not the gods/God exists; brought about by Sophist Protagoras * Atheist: Does not believe in God. * Spinoza: Baruch Spinoza-Jewish-Dutch rationalist (one of the great rationalists in 17th century); opposed Descartes mind-body dualism; he laid groundwork for Enlightenment. Also wrote the book of Ethics * Historico-Cri tical Interpretation of the Bible: Spinoza applied the scientific method to the reading of Scripture, and this became what is now known as the â€Å"historical-critical method. His view was that religious conflict in Europe was a result of differing interpretation on key biblical passages. He developed this method of reading Scripture in order to bring about universal agreement on its meaning. * Pantheist: God is infinite, he is present in everything. * Universal Law of Nature: the laws and rules of nature, according to which all things happen, and change from one form to another, are always and everywhere the same. So the way of understanding the nature of anything, of whatever kind, must also be the same, * One Substance: The claim that there is one and only one substance. This substance he identifies as God. * â€Å"Substance†: Does not need the conception of any other thing in order to be conceived * substance is its own cause * that it is infinite * that it is the only substance; for if there were two substances, they would limit each other and cease to be independent * Monist: reduces nature and the condition of all things to one single substance. Inner-Cause: Humans come to understand that their struggle follows by necessity from the struggle of Nature, and that it has an inner link with other parts of the environment through a common inner cause, Nature. * Determinist: Laplace (french mathematician) said that everything that happens is predetermined- contradicting the belief of free will and suggests that the outcome of everything is written in the stars * Free Will: Doctrine that conduct of the individual is the result of personal choice. not divine forces of fate) * Locke: English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. * Empiricism: Derive all knowledge from what the senses tell us- came from Aristotle. There are no innate ideas and cannot prove the existence of God, eternity or substance) * Two questions about ideas? * Where do we get all of these ideas which are the content of our knowedge? * Whether things in the world fit our ideas, and not whether our ideas correspond to the nature of things in the world * Tabula Rasa: Clean slate. Primary Qualities: Extension, weight, senses reproduce them objectively. * Secondary Qualities: Color, smell; reproduce the things that are inherent in the things themselves. * Natural Rights: Lockes political philosophy is his theory of natural rights privileges or claims to which an individual was entitled * Hume (1711-1776; English): Scottish philosopher whose sceptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses. He was an Empiricist. * Two types of Perception * Impression: how we experience the world Ideas: what we recall of our impressions * Faith v. Knowledge: Knowledge is divided into three Categories * Knowledge * Belief * Faith (this is of lower grade than belief and knowledge) * Laws of Nature or Cause Effect: Emphasized that the expectation of one thing following another does not lie in the things themselves, but in our mind. Sophist Teaching compared to Socrates Teachings: Sophists desired money in return for teaching young men various things about political and social life, such as rhetoric. ? Socrates was a philosopher, whom spent his days wandering around the gym and the agora, talking to people. He developed a following of young Greeks, such as Plato and Xenephon. Socrates did not charge for his teachings. He also made a habit of proving just how little Sophists actually knew. Many people did b elieve Socrates was a Sophist and this is a reasonable claim, because Sophist were know to be knowledgeable people that taught the same skills Socrates was. Although Socrates would not consider himself a Sophist and would be known to talk down about them about how little they actually knew. Plato’s Myth of the Cave: A few people were sitting underground in a cave, facing the wall. They cannot turn around, and all they have ever seen are shadows of objects projected onto the wall. One manages to turn around, and he sees the actual items that he has only ever seen shadows of. It is completely dazzling. Plato is trying to demonstrate the relationship of the material world and the world of ideas. Compared to the world of ideas, the material world is dreary. When Aristotle disagreed with Plato’s Theory of Forms; What did Aristotle offer up as an alternative explanation for Reality? Aristotle argued that the theory of forms is seriously flawed: it is not supported by good arguments; it requires a form for each thing; and it is too mathematical. Worst of all, on Aristotles view, the theory of forms cannot adequately explain the occurrence of change. By identifying the thing with its essence, the theory cannot account for the generation of new substances. Aristotle was the first philosopher to formalize the subject of Metaphysics. As Aristotle explains, Metaphysics is the study of the One Substance (and its Properties) which exists and causes / connects all things, and is therefore the necessary foundation for all human knowledge. Aristotle was correct to realize that One Substance must have Properties that cause matters interconnected activity and motion. Hellenistic Period in Mediterranean World (300 BCE 0 400 BCE): Common themes that pervaded multiple cultures at this time? The time between the death of King Alexander the Great and the emergence of Ancient Greece * the term Hellenistic to define the period when Greek culture spread in the non-Greek world after Alexander’s conquest * The Greek language being established as the official language of the Hellenistic world * The art and literature of the era were transformed accordingly to more Greek styles * The Greek were the majority over the Mediterranean world, but they ofte n outnumbered by natives in the land; sometime there would be little interaction in some places between the Greek and the natives * The development of the Alexander Romance (mainly in Egypt) owes much to Greek theater as well as other styles of story. * The spread of Greek culture throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of cities. * The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities facilitated the building of Greek-style temples, and the Greek culture in the cities also meant that buildings. How is Christianity a blending between the Indo-European Semitic World views? The Greeks and Romans are a part of Indo-European culture, while the Jews belong to Semitic culture. He describes how Indo-European culture was characterized by a belief in many gods—pantheism. Similar ideas popped up in many different Indo-European languages, and were expressed by words that resembled each other greatly. The Semites, on the other hand, are characterized by monotheism, the belief in one god. Judaism, Islam, and Christianity are all Semitic religions. But Christianity complicates things, because it spread throughout Indo-European cultures and incorporated many features of those cultures. Semitic religions believe in one like Christianity, but also Indo-European culture believes in a messiah just like Jesus in the Christianity religion; so technically both cultures played a part in shaping Christianity. What is Descartes first movement of what is referred to as modern philosophy? What was his main â€Å"project† what type of conclusions did he arrive at? Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to emphasize the use of reason to develop the Natural Sciences. It can be said his main goal was to find out truth to Gods existence then human existence, as these were the main two subjects. Descartes was the first philosopher in a long time to attempt to bring all knowledge into a coherent philosophy. His concerns were with certain knowledge—that which we can know for sure—and the mind/body relationship. Because philosophers believed in a mechanistic view of nature, it was critical to figure out how the minds thoughts became translated into actions of the body. Descartes doubted everything that was not certain and then realized that the very fact of his doubting meant he must be thinking. From there, he decided that the existence of God is also certain, and went on to define the world in terms of thought and matter, which he called extension. The mind and body interact, but the goal is to get the mind to operate solely according to reason. What did Spinoza propose as a way for understanding the world? How does this compare to Descartes conclusions? How are they similar? How are they different? He rejected Descartess dualism and believed that thought and extensions are simply two of Gods features that we can perceive. He had a deterministic view of the world, believing that God controlled all through natural laws. Spinoza felt that only God was truly free but that people could attain happiness through seeing things from the perspective of eternity. They are similar, because they both believe in God, but they are very different from Descartes relying mostly on reason, and Spinoza thinking that God controls everything through Natural Laws. Hume’s ideas on morality the source of morality: David Hume, an 18th century philosopher, stated that morality is based on sentiments rather than reason. He concluded this after he developed his â€Å"theory† of knowledge which stated that everything we could know was observable by the senses — he was a naturalistic philosopher. He then looked at situations in which he thought that there was an obvious â€Å"wrong† and he